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ELEMENTARY COURSE 



IN 



WOODWORK 



DESIGNED FOR USE IN HIGH 

AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 

/ 



WITH 



ONE HUNDRED AND THIRTY-FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS 



BY 



GEORGE ALEXANDER ROSS 

INSTRUCTOR IN 

WOODWORK AND PATTERNMAKING 
LEWIS INSTITUTE, CHICAGO 



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FIRST EDITION 



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A. FLANAGAN COMPANY 

CHICAGO :: NEW YOKK 






THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

Two Copies Received 

JUL 19 1901 

Copyright entry . 

SLA] 19,/yc! 
CLASS <3-XXc n*. 

COPY B. 



Copyright, 1901 

BY 

A. Flanagan Company 






PREFACE. 

The character and object of this book is set forth on its title 
page. It is a manual designed principally for the practical 
assistance of students in elementary woodwork in the Lewis In- 
stitute. 

The author has endeavored to present the subject in such a 
manner as to make simple the transition from the easier to the 
more difficult operations; the exercises have been selected after 
having had a . thorough test covering a period of three years, 
and will be found practical in their application to the students 
in High and Technical Schools in elementary woodwork and 
turning. 

Part one, the bench work, is intended to cover a period of 
eight weeks, two hours per day, and part two, wood turning, 
four weeks, two hours per day, thus making a course which will 
be found to touch the principal points in elementary work, at 
the same time giving practice in the uses of the tools most com- 
monly used in carpentry, joinery and wood-turning. Disston 
& Sons' Handbook for Lumbermen has furnished many of the 
facts presented under "Care of Saws. 1 ' 

It has been the author's aim in this course to give just enough 
instruction in the work so that the student might be led to 
study out the problems for himself; by this means he is able to 
study the course of work that follows the second part of this 
book, i. e., Pattern Making. 

A cursory perusal of the work will disclose many features 
which the author feels sure will commend themselves to in- 
structors and others interested in this department of school 
work, and with the hope that theae pages may prove a valuable 
aid to students and teachers alike, this work is presented to the 

public. 

George A. Ross. 
Lewis Institute, Chicago, 1901. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

Care of Saws and Equipment .... 7 

Exercise in Sawing and Planing .... 21 

The Halved Joint ...... 47 

The Mortise and Tenon Joint .... 51 

Keyed Mortise and Tenon with Brace . . 57 
Exercise with the Bench, Bead, Rabbet, and Mold- 
ing Planes ......... 62 

Blind Mortises and Tenons with Beading and Rab- 
beting ........ 66 

Dovetail Corner Joint (Common) .... 71 

Glass Panel Door Frame ..... 79 

Bench Hook. Use of Shellac .... 87 

Box with Sliding Top ... . 89 

Problem in Truss Work ..... 94 

Problem in Stair Building .... 100 

Problem in Stair Railing ..... 106 

To Prepare Shellac ...... 114 

To Prepare Glue and How to Use It . . . 115 

To True Oil Stones 116 



CARE OF SAWS, AND EQUIPMENT. 



Elementary woodwork can be more readily learned 
from small pieces of wood than from large; so the exer- 
cises that are here given are of such dimensions that 
they can be easily handled in working out the prob- 
lems. 

Since it is by what we study and learn that we are 
able to do something else, the student in beginning 
this work should thoroughly familiarize himself with 
the tools, their names and uses, so that he may more 
readily understand their application in the work that 
follows. 

The equipment for the general use of students in 
each bench locker is as follows: 

1 20-inch Rip-Saw. 

1 20-inch Cross-Cut Saw. 

1 10-inch Back-Saw. 

1 8-inch Try-Square. 

1 8-inch Bevel. 

1 8-inch Wing Dividers. 

1 Marking Knife. 

1 3-8-inch Hand Mortising Chisel. 

1 Bit Brace. 

1 1-4-inch, 3-8-inch, 1-2-inch and 3-4-inch Auger Bit. 

1 Nail Set. 

1 Mallet. 

1 Hammer. 

1 Oil Stone. 



8 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 

1 Oil Can. 

1 Screw Driver. 

1 Dust Brush. 

The equipment of tools in drawer and under the care 
of individual students is as follows: 

1 Number 5 Bailey Iron Plane (Jack Plane). 

1 Number 4 Bailey Iron Plane (Smooth Plane). 

1 Marking Gauge. 

1 1-4-inch, 1-2-inch, 3-4-inch, and 1-inch Bevel Edge 
Paring Chisel. 

1 1-4-inch and 3-4-inch Skew Turning Chisel. 

1 1-4-inch and 3-4-inch Turning Gouge. 

Tools, such as molding, beading, rabbeting, and plow 
planes are found in the tool room, and are issued to 
students on check when required. 




Fig. 1. 



Fig. 1 shows the double bench equipped with 
rack, cam and quick acting vises, with the locker 
for the general tools and four drawers on each side of 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 9 

the bench with tools for the use of the individual stu- 
dent. Carpenters' benches are usually about 33 inches 
high, while cabinet and pattern makers' benches are 
from 2 inches to 4 inches higher. 

The careful workman as a rule takes great pride in 
the condition in which his bench is kept; so the begin- 
ner should see that his immediate surroundings are 
kept in a neat, workmanlike manner, and with every- 
thing in proper place. 

Care should be taken to protect the top of the bench 
from injury; it should never be marked by the chisel 
or cut by the saw. If chiseling has to be done on the 
bench, . place the work on the bench hook or on a 
board, and in sawing use a bench hook such as is shown 
in Fig. 2, that has a side lip that will protect the 
bench top. 

The bench hook is 
made by students as 
an exercise, and is used 
to replace those hooks 
that have become worn 
out. 
The material, which is delivered from the lumber 
yard in boards or planks, has to be cut up into lengths 
and widths suitable for the work to be done. The 
tools used for doing this cutting are the rip-saw and 
the cross-cut saw. 

Now, a great amount of time can be lost in this 
work by the student, for the reason of his trying to do 
work with one tool when another should be used, and 
especially is this so in regard to saws. A saw will cut 




10 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 

faster than a chisel in some places, and sometimes 
make the work as good if not better; so the student 
should learn to file and to keep a saw in just as good 
order as any other tool used. 

"We devote considerable space here, to the saw, for 
we feel that the saw as one of the principal tools is 
often neglected, and is not used by students in their 
work as much as it should be. By a judicious use of 
this tool much time can be saved and a greater amount 
of ground covered than by trying to use a chisel or a 
jack knife in its stead. 

Saws are either reciprocating or continuous in action; 
the first being a flat blade and a practically straight 
edge, making a plane cut, as in mill, jig, and sash saws; 
the latter either a circular or rotating disc, cutting in 
a plane at right angles to its axis (see buzz-saw in 
shop) or a continuous ribbon or band running on two 
pulleys, making a plane or curved cut with a straight 
edge parallel to their axis of rotation (see band-saw in 
shop). 

Practically speaking, the teeth are a series of knives 
set on a circular or straight line, each tooth cutting 
out its proportion of wood, and kept from cutting more 
by the teeth on either side of it. Each tooth should 
cut the same amount and carry out the chips or dust, 
dropping it to the side or below the material being 
sawed . Different kinds of woods require teeth different 
in number, angle or pitch, and style of filing. 

The perfect saw is one that cuts the fastest and 
smoothest with the least expenditure of power; to do 
this it is evident that each tooth should be so con- 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK.. 



11 



structed and dressed as to do an equal proportion of 
the work, for if any of the teeth are out of line or 
shape they are not only useless themselves but a dis- 
advantage to the others. 

A saw tooth has two functions — paring and scrap- 
ing. A slitting or rip saw for wood should have its 
cutting edge at about right angles to the fibre of the 
wood, severing it in one place, the throat of the tooth 
wedging out the piece. 

F 1G.3 




The rip saw, Fig. 3, should be filed square across, 
and the front or rake of tooth should be at about right 
angles to the edge of the saw. 

After jointing and setting, file one half the teeth 
from each side, which will give to the cutting edge of 
the tooth the slight bevel it should have for soft wood; 
for medium hard woods use a finer toothed saw, and 
file in the same manner; for the very hard, tough and 
cross-grained woods, use a saw still finer with the teeth 
filed slightly beveling, as ripping cross-grained stuff 
partakes a little of the nature of cross-cutting. 

In all cases where ripping is done, the thrust of a 
saw should be on an angle of about 45 degrees to the 
material being cut, as shown in Fig. 4. This makes a 



12 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN AVOODWORK. 



shearing cut, an advantage that can be quickly dem- 
onstrated with an ordinary pocket knife, cutting any 
piece of soft wood. 

Saws are designated by the num- 
ber of points or teeth per inch, and 
the selection of a saw depends upon 
the character of wood to be worked. 
A rip-saw should have from 4 to 10 
teeth per inch, the cross-cut saw 
from 6 to 16 teeth per inch. This 
includes the back-saw ; it being filed the same as a 
regular cross-cut saw. 

The harder the wood, the greater the number of 
teeth the saw should have. 

We will now consider the cross-cut saw tooth in re- 
gard to rake or pitch; this being one of the most im- 
portant features, too much care cannot be taken to 
have the correct amount of pitch for the duty required. 
To illustrate this. Fig. 5 represents a board, across 





which we wish to make a deep mark or score with the 
point of a knife. Suppose we hold the knife nearly 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



13 



perpendicular as at B; it is evident that it will push 
harder and will not cut as smoothly as if it were in- 
clined forward as at A. It follows then that the cut- 
ting edge of a cross-cut saw should incline forward as 
at C, Fig. 6, rather than stand perpendicular as at D, 
Fig. 7. 

Fig. 6 Fi G 7 





Too much hook or pitch and too heavy a set are 
very common faults, not only detrimental to good 
work but ruinous to the saw; in the first case, by hav- 
ing a large amount of pitch, the saw takes hold so 
keenly that frequently it "hangs up" suddenly in 
the thrust — the result, a kinked or broken blade; in 
the second, by having too much set, the strain caused 
by the additional and unnecessary amount of set is out 
of proportion to the strength of the blade, and it is 
broken in the same manner. The most general value 
of pitch used is 60 degrees, though this may be varied 
a little, more or less, to advantage, as occasion may 
demand. 

In all cases the size of tooth depends largely upon 
the duty required; a long tooth has the demerit of be- 
ing weak and liable to spring, but the merit of giving 
a greater clearance to the saw-dust. The throat space 
in front of each tooth must be large enough to contain 
the dust of that tooth from one stroke; the greater the 



14 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



feed the deeper the dust chamber required, or the more 
teeth. Where the teeth are fine the shape of the 
throat is of special interest. 

The teeth of a hand-saw should be filed so true that 
on holding it up to the eye and looking along its edge, 
it will show a central groove down which a fine needle 
will slide freely the entire length. This groove must 
be angular- in shape and equal on each side, or the saw 
is not filed properly and will not run true. 



Fl G. 9 



Fig. 10 



Fig. ii 






Fig. 8 shows how the groove should appear on look- 
ing down the edge of the saw. The action should be 
such that the bottom of the cut or kerf will present the 
appearance as shown in Fig. 9, and not as in Fig. 10; 
the cutting action is shown in Fig. 11, the cutting being 
done with the outside of the tooth; the fibre of the 
wood is severed in two places, and the wood is crumbled 
out from point to point by the thrust of the saw. 

The proper amount of bevel is very important, 
as is demonstrated by the above figures, for if too 
much bevel is given the points will score so deeply 
that the fibres severed from the main body will not 
crumble out as severed but will be removed by con- 
tinued rasping. This is true, particularly in hard 
woods, as they require less bevel, as well as pitch, than 
soft wood. 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



15 



The next point to be considered is the_bevel or fleam 
of the point. In Fig. 12 the filer, as in all cases, files 
from the heel to the point; which is the only correct 
way. 




The file is supposed to be perpendicular to the side 
of the saw in the vertical plane (see Fig. 13), at an 
angle of about 45 degrees in the horizontal plane, 
measuring from file line towards heel (see Fig. 14). 




Fig. 15 is a fair representation of many saws that we 
have seen owned by workmen; the result of owning such 



16 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN AVOODWORK. 



tools is shown in the poor work turned out by them. 

As has already been said, the filing should be done 

from the heel of the saw toward the point. Many prac- 



FlG.14- 




tical saw filers contend that this is wrong; that the 
filing should be done from the point of the saw toward 
the handle; but the only support they offer for this 
theory is that they do away with the feather edge that 
the filing from the heel of saws puts on the cutting 
face of the tooth. The feather edge is no objection, as 
the main part of it is removed when the teeth are side- 
dressed after the saw is set and sharpened. 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 17 

Against the correctness of filing from point to handle 
may be cited the following objections: 

Where a different angle of back is required (it should 
be remembered that that angle of face should be the 
same in nearly all cross-cut hand saws, and that angle 
of back governs angle of point) it will be found very 
difficult to obtain it without changing the angle of face 

Fig. 15 




of the tooth, and as the cutting duty is on the long side of 
the face, any change is, of course, of great influence. 
Again, to file from the point of the saw it is necessary 
to file with the teeth bent toward the operator. This 
will cause the saw to vibrate or chatter, a thing which 
not only renders good, clean, even filing impossible, 
but breaks the teeth off the file. 

The setting of a saw is an important part of the 
work in keeping a saw in order, and should be done 
after the saw has been jointed, and before filing. 

The set should be uniform throughout, as the good 
working of a saw depends nearly as much on this as on 
the filing. One great mistake is often made in setting 
a saw, and that is that many try to put the set in the 
blade instead of in the tooth. The set should not go 



18 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



at the most lower than half the length of the tooth; by 
going lower it is liable to spring the body of the saw, 
if not break the tooth out. 

Two methods may be given for setting saws. The 
first, or old method (employed before saw-sets were 
invented, and still used by old mechanics) is to take a 
hardwood block, lay the saw on it, and with a nail-set 
and hammer set every other tooth on the side, then 
turn the blade over and repeat the operation on the 
teeth missed from the first side. It is needless to 
make any comment on this method when saw sets can 
be boughtth at are absolutely reliable in their operation. 

The second method is to use 
the saw-set. Saw-sets are made 
in many styles, and can be 
bought at any hardware store. 

Figs. 16 and 17 show two 



Fig. 17. 




Fig. 16. 



styles of saw-sets; much might 
be said in favor of each. 

Saw clamps or vises used to 
hold the saw when filing can 
be bought (see Fig. 18), but 
a simple homemade vise can 
be put together by means of 
one 3 feet 6 inches long and 




two pieces of board, 
6 inches wide, and 
one 2 feet 4 inches long and 6 inches wide. By fast- 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



19 



ening a piece 2^ inches thick about 10 inches from the 
top of each, to act as a fulcrum, and fastening a piece 




Fig. 19. 



Fig. is 



r\ - - ii !■! i i- ■ m ii m~ m— <— Mm| 



on each board at the top to act as jaws, and using a 
wedge at the bottom to tighten it up, a very service- 
able vise is obtained (see Fig. 19). 

To assist those not skilled in the art of filing, there 
is made a saw-filing clamp with a guide, of which a 
cut is here shown in Fig. 20. 

A few general rules may be observed in saw-filing: 
See that the file is held at the same angle throughout 
the operation. File every other tooth on one side, 
and when filed, reverse the saw and file the other teeth 
from the other side. For rip saws, place the file at 
right angles with the saw, and file the rake of tooth at 
right angles to the edge. After a saw is properly set 
and filed, lay it on a flat board and rub over the points 
of the teeth on the sides with an oil stone; this will 



20 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



regulate the set and insure smooth cutting, making the 
filing last longer. Should the saw not run true take 
another cut with the oil stone over the side toward 
which it leads. 




FlG.2 



A fast cutting cross-cut saw should have deep teeth. 

Much useful information on saws can be obtained 
from a small book published and issued by Disston & 
Sons, Philadelphia, entitled "Hand Book for Lumber- 
men," which, I believe, can be obtained on applica- 
tion. 

The other tools used in this course will be taken up 
in order as they are used in the work. 






EXERCISE NO. 1. 



The following operations are designed to give the 
student a training in the use and care of the most 
commonly used carpenters' and joiners' tools. It is 
not intended that the student will be able to finish 
each exercise in one trial, as mistakes will be very 
common at the beginning, and it is advised that at 
least two or three trials may be given for the practice 
and training involved. 

In Fig. 21 is shown the working drawing (mechani- 
cal drawing) of a rectangular block of wood, and before 
we proceed to do the work required to finish this, we 
will study the drawing. 

In order to represent solid figures with their three 
dimensions, length, breadth, and thickness, on a plane 
surface, i. e., a sheet of paper, we must have at least 
two drawings (projections), but to simplify the reading 
still further a third drawing is given, sometimes with 
additional drawings in the form of cross-sections. 

To understand fully the principle upon which a 
working drawing is made, we will suppose that two 
transparent planes cross each other at right angles, 
making four right angles as shown in Fig. 22, (these 
angles to be known as the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th 
angle of the co-ordinate planes), and respectively called 
the Horizontal and the Vertical planes. 

21 



22 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 





l^.J**i 



QO 






ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



23 



Two of these angles are used in practice, the 1st and 
the 3rd; the most modern practice is to use the 3rd, 
although the 1st is still used in some manufacturing 
establishments and by some teachers. 




We will take, first, the 1st angle, and compare it 
with the results obtained from the 3rd angle. We 
place the solid (exercise 1) in space in the 1st angle, 
and also place a similar one in the 3rd angle (see 
Figs. 23 and 24). 

By projecting the lines back on the vertical, and 
down on the horizontal plane, we obtain two views 
which are respectively the elevation on the vertical 



24 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 




ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



25 




26 



ELEMENTAEY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



and the plan on the horizontal plane; to obtain the 
third view or end elevation, we have another plane 
placed perpendicular to planes H and V, as shown in 
Figs. 23 and 24, and the lines projected back from the 
left end; by opening or revolving these planes into one 
plane, as shown in Fig. 25, we have a working draw- 
ing made in the 1st angle. 



\ 


•.p. 






FIG. 25 










! 










1 














































► 


-I.R \ iT ANGLE 











Referring to Fig. 24, where we placed the solid in 
the 3rd angle, we project the lines up on the horizon- 
tal and to the front on the vertical plane, and by plac- 
ing another plane "at the end, perpendicular to the H 
and V planes, we obtain the third projection. Revolv- 
ing the planes into one plane (i. e., a sheet of paper) 
Fig. 26, we have the working drawing in the third 
angle. Compare the results obtained, and note the 
difference in the reading of the drawing. 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



27 



In the first angle we see the plan is below the eleva- 
tion, and in the third angle the plan is above; the 
pieces cut out of the exercise may also be noted in the 
end projection by the lines passing through the center 
of the exercise; in the first angle the line comes out 
full, the end being exposed, and in the third angle the 
surface is behind the full end and shows a dotted line. 

Lines that are seen are shown as full lines. 



H. P 5 1° A N G L e 






) 

1 














• 














• 














t 














J 














» 














I 














| 




I 


! 

V.R FIG. 26. 











Lines that are below a surface and are required in 
the reading of a drawing are shown as dotted lines. 

The drawing, Fig. 21, calls for a piece that is 8 
inches at its longest, 2 inches at its widest, and 1 inch 
at its thickest point, and that may be designated thus: 
piece 8 inches x 2 inches x 1 inch finished. 

For measuring, a standard rule 2 feet long that can 
be folded up is preferred. The rule is divided into 
feet, inches, ^ inches, J inches, J inches, 1-16 inches, 



28 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



etc. On some rules will be found scales that can be 
used in measuring drawings that are drawn to scale. 
The drawing may be of any scale, using f, \, J, 1, 1^, 
3, or 6 inches to the foot. 

The first thing to be done toward carrying out the 
work is to saw out a piece from the plank that is laid 
on the saw trestles (Fig. 27). Mark with a pencil the 




Fig. 27. 

lines to be sawed; holding the rule in the left hand, 
and the pencil in the right, and placing the index finger 
of the left hand against the edge of the plank, as shown 
in Fig. 28, draw both hands toward the body, thus 
marking out the piece lengthwise; then measure the 
length required and place the try-square (Fig. 29) 
against the edge of the plank, and draw a line along 
the blade through the point marked. 

The piece should be marked out larger than the fin- 
ished exercise so that there will be stock enough in the 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



29 



piece to perform the operations required, say 8^ inches 
x 2\ inches, the plank being thick enough to provide 
for the work on the sides. 

Having "laid out" the piece on the plank, take the 
rip-saw and hold it as shown in Fig. 30; saw down the 




Fig. 28. 

line, taking care that the "kerf" is square to the side 
of the plank; then take the cross-cut saw, and saw 
across the line marked. Hold the cross-cut saw as in 
Fig. 30. 

After having cut the piece from the plank take the 
jack-plane and put it in good condition for work. A 
sectional view of the Bailey Iron Plane is shown in Fig. 
31, and the parts are as follows: 

A — Plane Iron. 

B — Cap Iron. 



30 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



C — The Iron Lever. 

D — Thumb piece and Cam. 

E — Screw which acts as a fulcrum when the thumb 
piece is pushed into position. 

F — Thumb screw by which the Plane-Iron A is reg- 
ulated for any thickness of shaving. 




M'|M« M'I'I'I'T" 

3 12 



TT 



M 



Fl g. a a. 



G— Lever which is in contact with Plane-Iron. 

H — Screw which holds the iron bed piece in place. 

I — Bed piece. 

K — Lever. 

The plane-iron should be ground on the grindstone 
if nicked or rounded. 

To grind the plane-iron it should be held in the hand 
as shown in Fig. 32. 

Apply the iron to the stone, as indicated by dotted 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



31 







- 






M\ 




Li 


■ 


I 


'VHH 




w& 


^H 








■^■t 








> 




■ 





Fig. 30. 




Fig. 



3» 



32 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



line A, Fig. 33; then raise it until the proper angle is 
reached, a position indicated by full lines B. 




Move the tool gradually from one side of the stone to 
the other. See that there is plenty of water on the 
stone. The tool should be held during the operation 




so that it revolves toward the person grinding. The 
tool thus held is not so liable to have a "wire edge" as 
it is if held on the stone while it is revolving away 
from the operator. 

The "whetted" edge should never be ground away 
unless the plane-iron is in very poor condition. 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



33 



The grinding is complete when the bevel reaches the 
cutting edge, — a condition which can readily be deter- 
mined by holding the finger along the flat side of the 
iron and having the light fall in the proper direction; 
a thin bright line will be seen which will determine 
whether the iron is ground enough. The plane-iron is 
shown before it is ground in Fig. 34, and Fig. 3/5 shows 
it after it is ground. 

Fig. 3 4-. 



Z3 



Fig 35. 



To whet or sharpen the iron an oil stone is used. 
Oil stones are of different grades; a stone of medium 
hardness is best, as it will cut a little faster and leave 




a fairly smooth edge; whereas if the stone be hard much 
time is required to whet the iron, but it leaves a 
smoother edge. A coarse stone leaves a rough edge. 



34 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



Use oil that will not become gummy on the stone. 
Several good artificial stones have lately come on the 
market which give good service. To sharpen the iron, 
apply it as shown in Fig. 36, 1 and 2, and move it back 
and forth as indicated in Fig. 37. 




FJ6-37 



Many persons sharpen their plane-irons as indicated in 
Fig. 38; at first thought this may appear to be right, 
but many mechanics of long experience sharpen the 
''iron" as indicated in Fig. 36. This method gives a 




PiG.sa. 



stronger edge, which is not so liable to get nicked when 
the iron strikes a knot or a hard spot in the work. 

Great care should be taken to avoid giving the iron 
a rocking motion on the oil stone, as this will round 
the edge and the iron will not be any sharper than it 
would be if it were in the form shown in Fig. 39. 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODAYORK. 



35 



After having whetted the bevel side of the iron suffi- 
ciently, turn the iron so that it will rest perfectly flat 

on the stone, as shown at 3, 

/=— j Fig. 36, and whet it in this 

position; this will remove the 
"wire edge." Care should be taken to see that the iron 
is not raised in whetting the flat side; if raised as in 
Fig. 40 the cutting qualities of the edge will be injured. 




Ft& 40. 

The iron is now sharpened. Replace the cap-iron, 
keeping it back from 1-64 to 1-32 of an inch from the 
cutting edge; then place it in position and fasten it; 
look down the face of the plane and see that the edge 
protrudes far enough to cut the 
required thickness. The ad- 
justments are made by the 
thumb-screw F and lever K, 
Fig. 31. 

Place the block already sawed 
on the bench against the bench 
stop, Fig. 41, and then follow 
the method here given for planing a piece to the given 
dimensions. 

FIRST. 

Plane one side true and mark (0) for the "working 
face."' (A surface is said to be true when it is per- 




FlG 41 



36 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK 



fectly straight across; straight lengthwise, and free 
from twist). 

"Side" here used means one of the wider surfaces in 
distinction from the narrower surface, the edge. 

Methods for testing the surface with parallel strips, 
etc., will be shown by the instructor. 

SECOND. 

Plane one edge perfectly straight lengthwise, and 
square to the face side. Mark this edge for the " work- 
ing edge"; use the try-square, Fig. 29, to test the work. 




S.42, 

THIRD. 

Set the gauge, Fig. 42, to the width given in the 
drawing, and gauge a line from the face edge on both 
sides; then plane to the gauge lines. 

In using the gauge see 
that it is held as shown in 
Fig. 43, and push away 
from the body, having the 
pressure on the gauge as 
shown by the line A, B, 
Fig. 44. This will keep the head of the gauge close to 
the work. Do not try to mark a line by holding it as 
in Fig. 45, with the spur at right angles to the work, as 




ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



37 



it will generally follow the fibre of the wood and a 
crooked, ragged line will be the result. By holding it 
as shown in Fig. 43 (and gently letting the spur touch 
the work, going over it once or twice until the 
line is of the desired heaviness to work to) a clear, 
clean-cut line will be obtained. 

FOURTH. 

Set the gauge to the given thickness (see drawing for 
dimension) and gauge a line on both edges from face 
side; then plane to gauge lines. This, if done correctly, 




Fig. 4-6. 







will finish the four surfaces. It is sometimes necessary 
that the ends of a piece of work should be finished 
smooth; the method of procedure is as follows: 

Mark (from one end about 1-64 of an inch) a knife 
line all around (see Fig. 46), placing the head of the 
try-square against the face edge and the face side only; 
then take a small block and put behind the exercise as 
shown in Fig. 47, fasten in the vise, and plane to the 
knife lines. This block will save the corners from 
breaking. 



38 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 




Fig. 46. 




Fig. 47. 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



39 



To finish the other end measure the length and mark 
as on the first end. Then if the piece is too long to 
plane, saw off near the line, using the back saw as 
shown at Fig. 54, and then finish with the plane to the 
lines. 

In planing care must be taken to 'see that the plane 
is held firmly on the work to secure a true surface. A 




Fig. 48. 

rocking motion must be avoided. In order to get the 
best results see that the front of the plane is held down 
with the left hand, also pressing down and forward 
with the right hand at the same time, and at the end of 
the stroke lift the front of the plane as shown in Fig. 
48; never let it drop as in Fig. 49. 



40 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



A proper and an improper position to stand while 
planing is shown by Figs. 50 and 51. 

In planing the edge if it is higher on one side than 
the other, move the plane over to the high side and 
plane it down. Fig. 52 shows the position of the plane. 




Fig. 49. 

After the block is planed true and to the correct 
dimensions, lay out the lines across the face at the left 
hand end shown in the drawing and square the lines 
down the depth on the edges; then set the gauge and 
mark around the end and notch on both edges. Be- 
ginners will find it a little difficult at first to saw a per- 
fectly clean line so as to secure a sharp corner; by cut- 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



41 




Fig. 50. 



42 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 




Fig. 51 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



43 



ting notches with a 
knife point as shown 
at Fig. 53, it will be 
easy to secure sharp 
corners. Place the 
back saw, Fig. 54, 
in the notch, hold 
it tightly against 
the flat side, and 
saw down to the 
desired depth, re- 
moving the portion 
from the end with 
the rip saw (see 
Fig. 5^). 

To remove the 
portion between the 
sawed lines take the 
chisel, Fig. 56 (the 
same directions to 
be used for grinding 
and sharpening a 

chisel as are used for the plane-iron), pare lightly 
(about half through the width of the piece), cut down 




Fig. 52. 



> 



I 



Fig. 53. 



to the gauge line, and then turn the piece around 
and finish from the other side, leaving a straight 



44 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



surface at the bottom of the notch. Be careful 
not to take too heavy a cut, for the chisel will be 
hard to guide if the workman has to exert his whole 
strength to push it through the wood. The chisel has 




Fig. 54. 



a tendency to go down into the work if the flat side is 
not used as a guiding surface; this side, if kept in con- 
tact with the solid wood, will insure a straight surface? 
and consequently accurate work. 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



45 



The lining on the exercise is made with the gauge 
for the lines running parallel with the edge, with the 




Fig. 55. 



square and the knife for the lines at right angles to the 
edge, and with the bevel, Fig. 57, and the knife for the 




Fl G. 56 



oblique lines. Figs. 58 and 59 give methods for find- 
ing the angle of 45 degrees, which is the angle that is 
used for the oblique lines. 



46 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



Too much attention cannot be given to the opera- 
tions in this exercise, for in all work that requires 




material to be prepared, carelessness in detail and in- 
attention to methods, etc., will always appear in the 
finished work. 




EXERCISE NUMBER 2. 



HALVED JOINT. 



When two pieces of timber of equal thickness cross 
each other and the joint is to be flush, i. e., the pieces 
when joined are to form a flat surface, they are halved 




together; or, to put it in another way, a piece is taken 
out of each half its thickness and as broad as the piece 



48 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



which is to cross it, thus allowing the one to drop into 
the other, as shown in Fig. 60. The working drawing 
is shown in Fig. 61. 

To make this piece of work, refer to methods and 
operations given for the preparation of material in the 
first exercise. 



o •» 




FtCKGI 



Special results are sought for by specific methods in 
this exercise. Exercises that are not finished (by the 
methods given) as they should be, are thrown out as 
not coming up to the requirements and fall short of the 
object for which they are designed. 

The drawing shows two pieces of wood of given 
dimensions crossing each other at right angles and 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



49 



halved together, making a flush joint. Requirements: 
The pieces to be of the exact length, breadth-, and 
thickness called for, fitted closety on both sides, each 
piece to be exactly in the center of the other, and both 
sides smoothed off and perfectly flat when finished; 
the ends of the pieces to be planed square, and the 
ends of the halving to be fitted from the saw. Methods: 
After sawing out a piece (long enough to make both 




pieces, allowing for work on the ends), plane the piece 
by the methods given for planing in the first exercise; 
then saw it across in the center and proceed to lay out 
the pieces so that the face side of each piece will come 
on the same side; this means that the halving is cut 
out of the face of one piece and the back of the other 
(see Fig. 60). 

It will be well to consider this problem of laying out 
work as a problem in arithmetic. The pieces called for 
in the drawing are 5^ inches long, 1^ inches wide, and 
1 inch thick. The piece thai crosses comes exactly in 



50 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



the center. Therefore we have a problem like this: 
5^"— 1 J"=4", which is the difference between the length 
of one piece and the breadth of the other; but the 
piece comes in the center ; and so we take the differ- 
ence of the length, which is 4", and divide it b}^ 2. 
I" =2, which will give the distance from the end up to 
the first edge of the cross piece. As all measurements 
have a beginning somewhere, we mark a line near the 
end of the piece as shown in Fig. 62, and from this line 
we lay off the distance to the eross piece, marking with 
a knife point the position of the edge. Then we lay 





Fig. 63. 



off the width of the cross piece, which is 1%", leaving 
the distance to the other end 2", the same as at the 
first end. 

Having found the position of the edges of the cross 
piece, we mark a line across the work (using a knife 
and a square); then mark the lines down the edges. 
Now taking the gauge, we gauge from the face side of 
each piece the depth required. Then we cut a notch 
inside the lines with a knife, as shown at Fig. 53, place 
the piece on the bench hook, saw down to the gauge 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 51 

lines with the back saw (position shown in Fig. 54), 
and remove the portions to be taken out by the 
methods given for the notch in the first exercise. 

Then plane the ends of each piece perfectly square 
to the face side and face edge. 

An exercise that was made by a careful student and 
one that was made by a careless student are shown at 
Fig. 63, revealing the final results of careful as against 
careless work. 

Having cut out the center pieces and finished the 
ends we fit them together, seeing that the surfaces 
come flush; then smooth off the surfaces, being care- 
ful not to cut too much off the ends, for this will round 
the surfaces and thus spoil the work. Sharp tools are 
essential to good work. 

Lines drawn in their proper places, and then cut to, 
will give the results sought for in fitting. 



EXERCISE NUMBER 3. 



MORTISE AND TENON. 



When beams or pieces of wood stand square with 
each other, and the strains are also square with the 
pieces and in the plane of the frame, the most common 
junction is the mortise and tenon. 

A mortise is an opening, which may be square or 
oblong, intended to receive the tenon, and which may go 
into the work only a short distance, or may go all the 
way through. Where it goes only part way through it is 



52 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



called a blind mortise, and where it passes all the way 
through, a through mortise. A tenon is a projection 
on the end of a piece and fits into the mortise. The 
tenon usually has two shoulders formed by cutting 
away the sides, and should be about one third the 
thickness of the piece. 



Fl Cr. 6 4. 




1 






A 




^ . 6 ^ 


■■n 


i 
i 




i S£ ' 



There are a number of different styles of this joint 
and methods of fastening, which we will consider later 
in our work. 

The working drawing shown in Fig. 64 gives the 
dimensions of the pieces, the material of which is to be 
worked out in one piece, as directed in the previous 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 53 

exercise, and then cut up into lengths suitable for the 
exercise. The student should commence work on a 
piece with a full understanding of what is required to 
be done in order to finish the work as called for, and 
not try to make any kind of work do in order to pro- 
ceed to the next task. 

Notice what is required in this exercise: 

1st. That the pieces be perfect ly straight and square. 

2nd. That the tenon piece be exactly in the center 
of the mortise piece, and that the angles be right angles 
or "square." 

3rd. That the work be laid out systematically, with 
the lines in their proper places. 

4th. That the tenon be made altogether with the 
saw. 

5th. That the mortise be cut out with the hand 
mortising chisel. 

6th. That the tenon fit into the mortise, and not 
be squeezed. 

7th. That the joint fit closely, and that the work 
be finished off smoothly on the sides, with all the cor- 
ners sharp and the end of the pieces sawed square. 

The following methods if carried out will help the 
student to finish the work as required. 

It will be unnecessary to repeat hereafter the method 
of planing, as the student by this time should have 
learned to plane the pieces properly to dimensions. 

After the material has been planed, mark the piece 
to the desired lengths as shown in Fig. 65, and saw off 
the pieces square on the ends. Use the knife to mark 
the lines. In sawing, care must be taken to saw on 



54 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



-* 



the right side of the line, for the saw will cut out its 
own thickness and reduce the length of the piece that 
much if the piece is sawed on the wrong side of the line. 




Fl&65. 



Leave the tenon piece about J inch longer than the 
drawing calls for so that the tenon will protrude 
through and be finished off even with the mortise piece. 

Proceed to lay out the work. Take the mortise 
piece, which is 6 inches long, and mark the distance 
from one end (6'— lj'-=4j"0 f"=|xj=f or 2J"; 
locate the first point on the face edge; then measure 
from this point the width of the tenon piece, which is 
1-j"". Through the points just found draw the lines 
square to the face side. Place the square against the 
face edge and mark (on the 
opposite edge on the corner, 
a small cut for both lines 
(see Fig. 66) and square from 
the face side across the 
edge; lay the piece aside; 
take the tenon piece and point off the distance from 
the end of the piece to the shoulder, and mark across 







ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 55 

the face and back, using the square and the knife in 
marking. Prepare the shoulder lines for the back saw, 
as shown in Fig. 53, taking care that the notch is cut 
on the right side of the line. 

Take the gauge 
and set it to the 
distance from the Ftoev. 

face side to the first side of the mortise, and gauge the 
lines for the mortise on both edges; gauge the lines for 
the tenon. (This is for a single gauge.) Take the 
mortise chisel, Fig. 67, and make a mark from this line 
(see Fig. 68), which will give the thickness of the tenon 
and the width of the mortise; set the gauge out to the 
width and gauge the rest of the lines. 

Take the rip-saw and 
saw down the outside of 
the lines on the tenon 



i 



' ' & ' G s piece the length required; 

cut off the sides with the back saw. In sawing split 
the line so that the tenon will be as thick as the mor- 
tise is wide. This means that half the line is to be 
left on the work. Fasten the mortise piece in the vise, 
putting a piece below to keep it from going down when 
cutting. 

Place the mortise chisel about the center of the mor- 
tise; hold it vertically, and with the mallet drive 
the chisel down into the work; release the chisel and 
make a new cut, keeping the flat side of the chisel 
towards the end to which the mortise is being cut. 
Fig. 69 shows how the cutting should be done. 

Having reached the end, turn the chisel around, and 



56 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 






B 



Fig. 69, 



cut towards the other end in the same manner. 
(Where the mortise goes through it will be unneces- 
sary to take the chips from 
the first side.) 

Turn the piece over, and 
repeat the operation on the 
other side, when the chips 
can be easily removed. 
Proceed to test the work; 
see that the mortise is 
straight on the ends. Gen- 
erally the student will leave 
the ends rounding as shown 
in Fig. 70; this, if the ten- 
on is driven into the mortise, will squeeze the edges 
out of true (Fig. 71) and leave an opening on the ends 
of the mortise, as shown in Fig. 72. 





FlG,7 



^s> 



Fig. in. 



J 



Care should be taken to avoid this fault in this ex- 
ercise. (A mortise gauge such as a joiner uses is 

shown in Fig. 73; it has 
two spurs, one being ad- 
justed by the thumb 
screw at the end of the 



I 1 



F\&, 7 2 



shank. We will use a mortise gauge in our work 
later on.) 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



57 




Fig, 73. 

After the pieces have been cut, put them together, 
having the face sides together, and finish smoothly. 



EXERCISE NUMBER 4. 



KEYED MORTISE AND TEXOX, WITH BRACE. 



This method of joining timbers is sometimes used in 
heavy frame work, but can be used to advantage in 
light frame work that has to be taken apart, such as 
curtain frames, etc. 

In Fig. 74 is shown the assembled and the detailed 
drawings of this piece of work. The experience gained 
from the previous exercises can be used to advantage 
in working this problem. 

The requirements in this exercise are that all pieces 
be square and to dimensions. 

That the upright and cross pieces when keyed be 
square to each other. 

That the brace fit snugly, and form two angles of 
45 degrees back at its junction with the upright and 
cross piece. 

That all joints fit closely, and the whole work be 
smoothed off and made true. 



58 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



The method of laying out the keyed joint is some- 
what similar to that in the third exercise. 

On the upright locate the cross piece (on the face 
edge), which is 1^ inches from the end to the upper 
edge, and measure the width of the piece, which is 1J 




JZL 



81 8'S 



k|-> 



>4 .. s 



k-r4'-J 



inches; draw the lines square to the face side, deduct 
the amount of splay or bevel that is given to the mor- 
tise and tenon from the lower end of the mortise, and 
add to the upper end the width of the key; draw the 
lines, and mark them in some manner so that they will 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



59 



be known as working lines. Figs. 75 and 76 will show 
how this may be done. 

From the line which locates the lower edge of the 
cross piece (using the square on the face edge) mark 
the position (on the oppo- 
site corner) of the lower 





y 




x 


X 







Fig 75 



line on the outside edge, 
by the method given in the previous exercise (see Fig. 
66), and square this line across the outside edge; then 
measure the width of the tenon, plus the width of the 
key, and square the line across. 

(Where work is to be finished on the faces, care 
should be taken not to mark the work with knife lines, 
but if auxiliary lines must be used, then mark them 
with a pencil so that they may be cleaned off when 
the work is being smoothed.) 

Having laid out the keyed mortise lay out the brace 
mortise, the lower end of which is located 3^ inches 





K 


:< X 




7< * 


/ 





Fig. 76. 



3j- » 



below the lower edge of the cross piece; the drawing 
gives all the dimensions for this. 

Take the cross piece and lay out the tenon in the 
same way that the tenon in Exercise Number 3 is pre- 
pared, using the dimensions that are given in the 
drawing for the work on hand. 

After marking the shoulders of the cross piece lay 
out the brace mortise, which is 3| inches from the 



60 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 

shoulder to the farthest end, and mark the other lines 
as called for in the drawing. Use the single gauge as 
directed in Exercise Number 3 to mark the side lines 
of the mortise and tenon, and cut the mortise with the 
mortising chisel, taking care to cut the ends to the 
proper angle. 

Saw the tenon as previously directed, and after the 
sides have been cut off, mark the splay on the lower 
side of the tenon and cut it off with a paring chisel. 

The method of finding the length of the brace is of 
importance, as it will give the student some idea of the 
application of square root to practical work of this 
kind. 

The hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle equals the 
square root of the sum of the squares of its sides. For 
example, take the triangle that is formed by the up- 
right, the cross-piece, and the outside of the brace. 
We have a triangle that has two sides of equal length 
and wish to obtain the length of the brace on its long- 
est side. 

We will designate the angle where the cross-piece 
meets the upright, A, and the lower point of the brace 
on the upright, B, and the outside point of the brace 
on the cross-piece, C. Then we have the side AB, and 
the side AC, which we will square and add together, 
then extract the square root of this sum, which will 
give us the length of the brace on the longest side, to 
which we must add the length of the tenons that go 
into the upright and the cross-piece. The angles at 
each end of the brace will be 45 degrees, as the oppo- 
site angles of the triangle are equal, there being 180 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



61 



degrees in the sum of the three angles; one of the angles 
is a right angle (90 degrees), which we subtract from 
180 degrees; the remainder divided by two will give 
the number of degrees contained in the angle at the 
ends of the brace. 

The lines at the outside of the tenons on the brace 
are parallel with the upright and the cross-piece re- 
spectively. 

A method often used by practical men to get the 
length of short braces is to take a steel framing square 




and a rule, and find the length of the brace by apply- 
ing the rule to the square as shown in Fig. 77. On 
the short leg of the square will be found a brace meas- 
ure which gives the length of the sides of the triangle 
and the length of the brace, thus, S"=76.31". 

Bevels and tapers are found by applying the bevel 
to the square according to the bevel or the taper re- 
quired, such as 1 inch on one side and 4 inches on the 



62 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODAVORK. 

other side of the square; this would be called a taper 
of 1 inch in 4 inches. 

Having cut the pieces to dimensions as called for in 
the drawing, put them together, and finish smooth. 



EXERCISE NUMBER 5. 



Moldings and beads are sometimes used to ornament 
work, but the chief use of the bead is to conceal open 
joints by the shadow it casts. An example of this 
may be seen in beaded wainscoting or large surfaces 
that are finished with matched ceiling. If the boards 
were put together without a beaded edge, an unsightly 
crack would be the result from the shrinking and swell- 
ing of the material. 

Moldings are so varied in form that it would be use- 
less to try to describe them here. The molding shown 
in the drawing is given for practice in the use of the 
molding plane. 

A rabbet is generally a square corner cut out of the 
edge of a piece so as to 
lap over, or to make a 
place for glass, etc., as 
in window sash, glass ' 
panel doors, and door 
frames. The rabbet 
plane (see Fig. 78) is so 
constructed that the iron F1&.7& 

comes out flush with both sides, so that it will cut 
out a sharp corner or interior angle. 




ELEMENTAEY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



63 



To cut the rabbet, the iron combination plow, bead- 
ing, and rabbeting plane may be used, an illustration 
of which is shown in Fig. 
79. 

This tool can be set up as 
a rabbet plane or fillister, 
having a fence to guide it 
along the side and a shoe 
to stop its cutting when the 
desired depth is reached. 

The plan and end eleva- 
tion of this exercise is found 
in Fig. 80. The bead plane, Fig. 81, that is used on 
the edge of the exercise is known as a single quirked 
bead, and has a fence or guide by which it is held in 
position while the bead is being stuck on the work. 




Fig. 7 9, 



Fig. 8 o. 



t 



to 



6" 




I ?__rJ-<* 



\-r-i 



The angle bead is made with the same plane, but 
the work must be turned in order to cut the quirk on 
the other side. 

The center bead plane (see Fig. 82) is a double 



64 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



quirked bead plane, and requires a piece fastened on 
the work in order to guide it. « rA 

The guide piece can be held in |L ei 



w 



place by several methods; one method 

is to tack it on to the work, but this in 

leave.3 the nail holes in . the work. Another method 

is to make a piece as shown in Fig. 83; if the work is 

long a thin strip with small blocks fastened on the 

ends, Fig. 84, and a wedge driven between one of the 

blocks and the work will hold it firmly in place. 




FlG.8 + 



After planing the piece to the desired dimensions we 
would advise the student to follow the following order 
of work: 

First, cut the rabbet. 

Second, stick the center bead and cluster of beads 
or reeding. 

The reeding is done by first sticking one of the beads 
by means of the guide piece and then letting one of 
the quirks of the bead plane follow in the quirk of the 
bead already stuck. 

Third, cut the edge and angle beads. 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



65 



Fourth, stick the molding. 

In Fig. 85 is shown the molding plane held in posi- 
tion for work. On the front end of the plane will be 
found a line, which must be kept vertical when the 











Wm 








W\ 


£ 




•■7 •'"' 


9HKUM I A 


^^H 


^^^ V J 




, -4_*~- "' »■ , . ^^ ■" 










V 


H5 








^^^gflS &J 






^«*tf 


arafijif'-Vi'lA.*;. ' : " /. " '. j 





Pig. 85. 
plane is at work. Finish the beads with sand paper 
in order to remove all roughness. 

Bead and molding plane irons are ground on an 
emery wheel with a rounded edge. 

The sharpening is done with a slip-stone. A slip- 
stone used for beads and 
molding planes is wedge- 
shaped in the cross section, 
with rounded edges (see' 
Fig. 86). Fig. 86 

Where sharp corners occur in molding plane irons, 
triangular and square slips are used. 




EXERCISE NUMBER 6. 



It has already been mentioned that a bead is used 
in decoration. An application of the bead as a dec- 
oration is given in connection with the use of the rab- 
bet in this exercise, the bead can be applied to door 
frames where glass panels, etc., are to be used. 




6)8 



H-li-^ 



In Fig. 87 is shown the working drawing. The 
features in this exercise to be specially noticed are the 
method of joining the bead so as to form a continuous 
bead around the edge, the method of laying out and 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 6? 

cutting the shoulder so that the opening in the frame 
will be kept to size; the mortise and tenon used here 
is what is called a blind mortise and tenon. 

Having noticed these features, proceed to prepare 
the material, by methods previously given, to dimen- 
sions called for in the drawing. The requirements for 
this exercise are that all measurements be correct, that 
all joints fit closely, that the angles be right angles, and 
that the work be finished in a neat workmanlike manner. 

The material having been prepared, proceed to lay 
the work out. 

Suppose this exercise to be the top of a glass panel 
door; the pieces on the sides of a door are called the 
stiles; the cross pieces are called the rails, and, accord- 
ing to the position they occupy, are called respectively 
the top rail, the mid-rail, and the bottom rail. The 
pieces that stand in the center are known as muntings. 

To lay out the work, mark out the mortise on the 

top of the stile about 1^ inches from the end. It will 

be noticed that the mortise is not so long as the top 

rail is wide; the piece that is cut out of the tenon is 

known as a rebate or rabbet. The reason for cutting 

out this piece and shortening the mortise is to strengthen 

the joint by leaving a piece of solid wood so that the 
+ ;_:n_ + u c ^ 

on the end. Fig. 88 



k 



shows the piece marked 

IT NkBEflO CINE 

out for the stile; the ar- Figs a 

row heads in the figure are known as witness marks 

and show between what lines the cutting is to be 

done. 



68 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 

The shoulders on the top rail and on the muntings 
are to be specially noticed. In laying out the top rail 
the opening between the munting and the stile is 4 
inches. The shoulder on the. face side of the top rail 
reaches to the farthest side of the bead so as to form a 
close fitting joint, and the shoulder on the back 
reaches to the bottom of the glass rabbet. 

In order to keep the opening as called for in the 
drawing and to miter the bead so as to make it con- 
tinuous around the edge, lay out the work in the fol- 
lowing manner: Locate a line on the edge of the rail 
that will represent the side of the opening next to the 
stile, leaving enough for the tenon; then lay off the 
width of the opening; draw a line which will represent 
the end of the mortise for the munting; mark the 
length of the munting mortise. On the inside of each 
end of the mortise lay off the width of the bead which 
is stuck on the munting. 

Return to the first line which represents the open- 
ing, and add to the outside of that the width of the 
bead and rabbet; then from those lines mark across the 
face from the line which will represent the bead, and 
across the back from the line which represents the depth 
of the glass rabbet. sHoyuwreRR^BEr. 

Prepare the shoulder 

















TKNOM 








MO(?T(5 6 


















S 



shouCder Line fob bead 



lines for the saw as di- 
rected in previous work. Fig 89 
The lines to be drawn on the edge of the rail are shown 
in Fig. 89. 

The shoulders on the munting are prepared in the 
same way as the rail. In marking the sides of (he 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



G9 



mortise and tenon use the mortise gauge (see Fig. 73) . 

Cut the mortise and the tenon as directed in pre- 
vious work, using a narrow chisel to remove the chips 
from the mortise. The bead is to be joined so that it 
will appear continuous; the method of joining is called 
mitering. A miter is made by cutting, at an angle of 
45 degrees, the pieces to be joined. 

The practical man will try many methods of cutting 
material .in order to save time. For instance, if he is 
to make frames where the corners are to be mitered, 
he will make a miter box. This box (which is not a 
box at all) is three pieces fastened together to form a 
bottom and two sides, all of which must be true before 



\ • • • • 



Fig 90 



being nailed together; then by cutting across the sides 
in both directions with the saw at an angle of 45 de- 
grees and square to the bottom, the so-called miter 
box is made, an illustration of which is shown in Fig. 
90. Iron miter boxes are now in general use; of these 
Fig. 91 is a good representation. 

In the mitering of the bead, a templet, which can 
be made by the student, is of great service. 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK 



A templet is a 
mould or pattern 
used as an auxiliary. 
The templet for this 
work is made in the 
following manner. 
Take a piece and 
rabbet out one corner as shown in Fig. 92; then cut 




Fig. 31. 



Fig 03 



FlO.0 2. 

the ends as shown in Fig. 93, which are at 45 degrees. 
With this templet placed on the work as shown in Fig. 





FlG.£>4- 

94, with a chisel cut off the bead, which protrudes be- 
yond the templet. 




Fig. 95 
At the mortises remove part of the bead as shown 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



71 



in Fig. 95; then place the templet in position, and cut 
to the angle. 

Care should be taken to see that the mortises are 

cut square to the edges on the ends, so that they will 

not squeeze the tenon when putting the work together. 

After all cutting and fitting is done glue the work 

(see note on glue at the end of 
the book), and clamp the pieces 
together with handscrews. 
Hands crews are of the form as 
shown in Fig. 96. 

In order further to strength- 
FlG * 96 - en this kind of joint, small 

iron pins may be driven into the back through 
the tenon, but they must not come through the work. 
The pins may be made by cutting wire brads off to 
the required length and driving them in and setting 
them below the surface with a nail set. After the glue 
is set finish off the work with a smooth plane. 




EXERCISE NUMBER 7. 



DOVETAILING. 

One of the most important methods employed by 
the joiner is that termed dovetailing, which is of three 
kinds, namely, common, lap, and miter. Common 
dovetailing (see Fig. 97) shows the form of the pins or 
projecting parts, as well as the excavations made to 
receive them. Lap dovetailing is similar to this, but 



72 



ELEMENTARY COUESE IN WOODWORK. 



in that system the ends of the dovetails of the side A, 
Fig. 98, are shortened, and the recesses which are to 
receive them in B are not cut through when joined 




F« G, 97. 



together; only the ledge is visible on the return side. 
Miter dovetailing (sometimes also called secret dove- 
tailing) conceals the dovetails, and shows only the 
miter at the edges. The manner in which this joint 






ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



73 



is made will be understood from Fig. 99, in which the 
two parts A and B are given, each part being lettered 
to correspond with the position it is to occupy when 




Fig. as 



the sides are joined. Concealed dovetailing is par- 
ticularly useful where the faces of the boards are in- 
tended to form a salient angle; that is, one which is on 
the outside of any piece of work; but when the faces 



74 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



form a re-entrant angle, that is, a joint to be seen from 
the inside, common dovetailing will answer best; for, 
first, it is stronger, because the dovetails pass entirely 




Fig. 69 

instead of only partly through; secondly, it is cheaper, 
for the dovetails which go through the whole wood 
take up much less time in working than where a miter 




Fig. ioo. 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



75 



has to be left; and further, if well executed, the dove- 
tails are, by the very nature of the work, concealed in- 
ternally. 

Fig. 100 shows a variation of the common dovetail, 



r 



tf 



I 



i 



i 



4". 



*j 




,-.. 


t 


— 


i 

| 





•I. 

1 



Fig. i oi, 

used in attaching the fronts of drawers to the sides, 
and for similar purposes. 

In Fig. 101 is given the working drawing of the 
common dovetail, and Fig. 102, A-B shows the details 
of each piece. 



76 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



The stock can be prepared in one piece (having it 
long enough so that if a poor joining is made, the dove- 
tails can be cut off and new ones cut on this piece). 
After planing, cut in two, square one end of each piece 
(the ends to be joined). To lay out the work, it is 
advisable to lay out the piece with the pins or tenons 
first. From the squared end measure mthe thickness 
of the side; then mark on both sides, using the knife 
to draw the lines. 

On the face side (which is the side that would be 
toward the inside of a box) lay off the lines shown for 



B 



Fig. I o z. 

the pins in the detail marked A, Fig. 102. These lines 
can be drawn from the working edge with a gauge, or, 
if the ends are perfectly square, the square can be 
used (the lines being parallel with the edge). From 
these lines will be drawn the oblique lines across the 
end with the bevel set at a taper of 1 inch to 4 inches. 
The bevel can be set by the steel framing square, by 
the methods already given. 

After drawing the lines saw down the required depth 
on the outside of the line, and remove the pieces be- 
tween the pins or tenons by first boring a hole through 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK 



77 



the piece to be removed, then cutting from both sides 
with the chisel. 




Fig i 



(The boring is done with the brace, Fig. 103, and 
the bit, Fig. 104. Bits are of different forms; Fig. 105 
shows a number of different styles). 




Fig .104 

It will be necessary only to draw the lines across 
the end of the piece marked B, Fig. 102, as the mark- 
ing of this piece for the recesses will be made by hold- 
ing in position the piece already cut, and scribing or 
marking the pins or tenons, then squaring the lines 
across the end. 

Great care must be taken in sawing the mortises if a 
perfect fit is desired. This can be done only by saw- 
ing on the inside of the line, cutting the lines in two. 
The pieces should go together by light driving, and 
should be perfectly square on the inside. If the joint 
is satisfactory take apart and glue together. After the 
glue is dry the joint can be smoothed and the ends of 



78 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 

the pieces cut off and squared to the proper dimen- 
sions given in Fig. 101. 






THfcBseWGD; 




FlG.IOS 



EXERCISE NUMBER 8. 



DOOR FRAME FOR GLASS PANEL. 

The preceding exercises are only a few of the meth- 
ods employed by the workmen in joining pieces to- 
gether. The experience gained in their execution will 
be of great help in the work that follows. 

Fig. 106 shows the working drawing for a small 
frame door for a glass panel; the details and sections 
of the pieces required are shown in Fig. 107. 

It must be taken into consideration that this door 
is actually to fit into an opening of a given size, and a 
little forethought will be necessary to work the ma- 
terial so that when all cutting and fitting is done the 
correct size will be the result of the labor expended. 

Study the drawing and make out a bill of lumber, 
noting what work must be done in order to proceed 
intelligently with the work. 

The outside size of the door is 9 inches by 12 
inches, and the width of the stiles is 2 inches. The 
width of the top rail is 1^ inches, and the width of 
the bottom rail is 2 inches, so that (allowing a little on 
the length of the rails so that the tenons would project 
through the stiles about |- inch, and the stiles would 
project beyond the rails about ^ inch, leaving what 
is known to workmen as horns) the bill of lumber 
would be: 

2 pieces 13 in x 2 in x 1 in. 
1 piece 9J in x 2 in x 1 in. 
1 piece 9i in x 1^ in x 1 in. 



Bill of Lumber 



79 



80 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



2 — 






-w 



± 



K- 



a~ 






^ — * 



"f 
:*- 



/K' 



ru 



-v 



. 


\ . jfc. „£' 


:-*vJ 




I 








i • 
i ■ 

; i 
■ i 

i i 

I 
i 



Fig, loo. 

It must also be taken into consideration that the 
door must be planed on the edges and the ends when 
it is all put together; it will be necessary to allow for 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 81 

this work when the material is being planed; having 
the stiles and rails a little over size in width will pro- 
vide for this. 

The laying out of this exercise is important, for 
there are several things to be considered; we must 
first find out the depth of the rabbet and the width of 
the molding before we proceed to lay out the work. 

It will be seen from section drawing A, Fig. 107, 
that the molding from the edges of the piece to the 
quirk is 5-16 inch, (this is the depth that the molding 
plane cuts); the rabbet is also the same depth; the 
opening between the stiles is 5 inches; to this must 
be added the depth of the molding and rabbet on both 
sides, which makes the distance between the shoulders 
of the rails 5-| inches. 

A simple rule to follow in laying out work, where 
pieces are in pairs or right and left, is to place the 
pieces together with their faces out and their edges up. 

Placing the rails in this position, lay out the rails. 
At the end draw a line across the edges. (It must be 
remembered that when the pieces were sawed out, 
they were left a little longer than the width of the 
door, so that the position of the first line is to be de- 
termined by the amount of extra stock left). From 
this line measure off the width of the door and mark 
across the other end. From these lines measure in 
the width of the stiles, which is 2 inches; this gives 
the width of the opening. 

We saw from A, Fig. 107, that the depth of the 
molding and the rabbet was 5-16 inch; so from the 2 
inch line we measure back on each end 5-16 inch; this 



82 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 




k& 



T3 1 



6 




Fl G.IQ7. 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 83 

gives the lines from which the shoulder lines are to be 
drawn across the faces and the backs of the pieces. 
Prepare shoulders for back saw as directed in other 
work. 

Now, taking the stiles, and placing them together 
by the rule given, lay out the lines for the extreme 
length of the door, and from one end measure in the 
width of the top rail (1-| inches). From the other end 
measure in the width of the bottom rail (2 inches). 
From these lines measure back the length of the mor- 
tises. It will be understood that by measuring is 
meant that lines are to be drawn. 

Lines are also needed on the back edges of the stiles 
for the mortises, as the mortise is cut all the way 
through. To obtain those lines apply the method 
given in exercise No. 3; never mark lines across the 
outside of the work unless it is absolutely necessary, 
and then with pencil only, so that they may be 
cleaned off when the work is being finished. 

The marking of the sides of the mortises and the 
tenons is done with the mortise gauge set to the 
dimensions given in the drawing, the gauge to be ap- 
plied to the face side. Cut out mortises and tenons 
as in former work, using the J inch mortising chisel 
which is found in the tool room. 

(All gauging for mortises and tenons having been 
done from the face side, and all cutting having been 
done to the lines, it necessarily follows that the face 
side of the door will be flush. This is absolutely nec- 
essary for the molding and the rabbet to match.) 
Take the combination plow and set it to cut the rab- 



84 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



bet, applying the fence to the face side and cutting 
the rabbets out of the corners opposite to where the 
plow is placed. See that the shoe is set to stop the 
plane cutting when the desired depth is reached. 




Fig. 108. 

Fig. 108 shows how this may be done. After cut- 
ting the rabbet, stick the molding (which in this case 
is called a Gothic or Scotia molding). Prepare the 
stiles as shown in Fig. 107, B. 

The joining of the molding is to be what is known 
as coping. This is done in the following manner: The 
molding is left projecting beyond the inside end of the 
mortises, as shown in Fig. 107, B. The molding on 
he rails is to be cut at an angle of 45 degrees. This 
is done by taking the templet used in Exercise No. 6 
and placing it on the rail as shown in Fig. 107, C, and 
cutting the molding with a chisel down to the tenons. 



ELEMENTARY COUESE IN WOODWORK 



85 



This will give the line by which the coping is to be 
cut. The cutting is done by using the gouge, Fig. 
109, one that is ground on the inside preferred; cut 
the coping deep enough to receive the molding which 




( 



Ft G. 109. 



projects beyond the mortise, Fig. 107, B. The line 
which will show at the joining of the molding on the 
face of the exercise will look like a miter joint. This 
joint has the advantage of always being close, for no 
amount of shrinking or swelling will open it. 

After all cutting is done, put together and see if all 
joints fit; having tenons cut as shown in Fig. 107, C. 
This allows room for wedges. 

The wedges are cut with a back saw out of a piece 
of board of the same thickness as the tenons. Fig. 
110 shows how this is to be done. 

If the joints are all satisfactory 
open them enough to allow the glue 
brush to go between the shoulders 
and the stiles; put a little glue on 
both sides of the tenons and drive 
together, putting clamps or large 
handscrews on to bring the joints 
up close; dip the points of the 




86 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



wedges in glue and drive them between the ends 
of the mortise and the edges of the tenon; re- 
move the clamps and let the glue set before smooth- 
ing the sides of the work. The door, when the 
wedges are driven and clamps removed, will look as 
shown in Fig. 111. 




Fig. 111. 

The ends of the tenons and horns are sawed off and 
the edges planed. (The gouge, Fig. 109, has a blade 
that is curved in its section the whole length; gouges 
are of different sweeps. The bevel which is ground 
on the cutting edge may be on the concave or the 
convex side; and according to this grinding the tools 
are known as inside and outside gouges. The sharpen- 
ing is done with a slip-stone. 

After the glue is hard enough, smooth the surface 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 87 

with the smooth plane, and then take sand paper and 
finish the work. Put the sand paper on a block, be- 
ing careful not to round the surfaces when using it. 



EXERCISE NUMBER 9. 



BENCH HOOK. 

(This exercise may be omitted at the option of 
instructor.) 

It will not be necessary to give many directions for 
this exercise, as the student by this time should have 
learned the sequence of operations in preparing ma- 
terial. The special points to be noticed in the work- 
ing out of this exercise are that the sides are cut out 
with the rip-saw; the ends cut with the back saw; the 
sides to be finished with the plane, using the rabbet 
plane to plane the corners at the stops at the ends, 
and the jack-plane for the rest of the surfaces. Sur- 
faces are to be finished with sand paper and shellaced. 

In Fig. 112 will be seen the working drawing. The 
thickness of stock required is If inches. The angle 
at which to set the bevel for the ends is \ inch in 4 
inches. All the other dimensions are found on the 
drawing. 

After the piece is cut out and finished with sand 
paper, give it a coat of shellac varnish and let it dry 
from 8 to 10 hours. Then with No. 00 sand paper 
smooth the shellac (but do not cut through). After 
which give another coat. To obtain a glossy surface 



88 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



the pores of the wood must be filled with the varnish; 
by repeating the operation with the sand paper and 
giving another coat of shellac, a very good surface 
will be obtained. 

Care must be taken in putting on the shellac var- 
nish not to put it on too thick, as it sets or dries 




IO" 




o 



«l 

n 

■ ■ 
,i 
I 
,1 


r 











■± 




Fig. ii2 
quickly and an uneven coat of varnish is unsightly. 
Spread it quickly; see that plenty of shellac is on the 
brush; do not go over it after it has once been spread 
evenly, as it will- roll up in small lumps which will have 
to be left to dry before anything can be done to it, 
and then it will take a great amount of labor to 
smooth it. 

This is one method of finishing with shellac varnish. 

To prepare shellac varnish see note. 



EXERCISE NUMBER 10. 



BOX WITH SLIDING TOP. 

There are so many ways in which a box may be 
made that it would be out of place here to enumerate 
them all. The joints used here are known as butt 
joints. 

Fig. 113 is the working drawing; the details of the 
work are shown in Fig. 114. 

The first steps to be taken in making this exercise 
is to make out a bill of lumber. By the drawing we 
find the length of the box to be 12 inches, the width 
to be 7 inches, and the height to be 5 inches, allowing 
| inch on each end of the sides for finishing. The side 
pieces would be 12^ inches. The thickness of the 
sides is ^ inch and the ends are let into the sides 
J inch as shown in Fig. 114, A; this would make the 
length of the ends 6i inches finished; one end 
being £ inch narrower than the other to let the top 
slide over it in the groove on the sides. The width 
of one end would be 5 inches, and of the other 4i 
inches. The bottom is to be let into the sides and 
ends in a groove which is J inch deep. This would 
make the bottom 11^ inches long, 6^ inches wide, and 
| inch thick. The top slides in the groove shown in 
the section at B, Fig. 114, which is J inch deep, and 
the end of the top goes into the groove in the end of 
the box, which is } inch deep. This would make the 
length of the top llf inches, the width 6^ inches, and 



90 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



**t — 

f 



I., > ^ ... 



,*9 



--■* 

' =W 



• — S 



■ — lol- 
— «■ 



LL 



K 



ni 



-Lj_ 



— -»- 



!r— - - it- 



to 

6 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



91 



the thickness £ inch. The bill of lumber would be as 
follows : 



Bill of 



Sides, 2 pieces 12|inx+in 
Lumber Top, 1 piece llfinx6iinxiiii. 

Cherrv or End ' X piece 6 i inxomx 2in. 
p.- i? End, 1 piece 6^inx4^inx^ir 



Finished 



Size. 



Bottom, 1 piece Il^inx6^inx2in. 




2=i 



1 







SECTION 
OF 5 I DE5 ANO 
WIDE END 







1 



Si 



PfC.II4r 



5ECTI ON OF • 

TOP f\tt D BOTTOM. 



SECT! ON O f= 
NflRROW SI 



-"■ 






1 



92 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 

The material used in this exercise will be planed 
nearly to the thickness by the planing machine, 
enough being left to smooth the work. Select and lay 
out on a board the pieces required (allowing enough for 
the work on the edges) . Saw out the pieces; then 
plane the edges by the methods given, omitting the 
planing of the face side and the back, but select and 
mark the sides for the working faces. 

The extremities of the end pieces are to be planed 
perfectly square to insure a close fit against the sides. 
The method of planing the ends is to plane half way 
through from the edge, then plane from the other 
edge, being careful not to let the plane go all the way 
across, as the corner will be liable to break off. 

It will not be necessary to plane the ends of the 
sides until the box is glued together, when they can 
be finished off even with the end. 

To lay out and prepare the sides, place the pieces 
together, faces out and edges up, draw a line across 
the edges at the ends for the full length of the box, 
then measure back the thickness of the ends. From 
these lines mark across the faces of each piece. It 
will be noticed that one end of each side can be sawed 
across, but the other end where the top enters the 
grooves will have to be cut partly with a saw and the 
rest of the way with a chisel. Prepare the ends the 
same as the shoulders of the tenon, being careful 
not to cut the groove all the way across where the top 
enters. 

Gauge the depth to which the ends go into the 
sides, and after sawing across remove the pieces from 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 93 

the corners with a chisel. It will be necessary only 
to have the end pieces the correct length, as there will 
be no lines to be drawn on them. 

Take the plow plane and put a J inch iron into it, 
and set it for the grooves that are cut out of the sides 
and the ends. 

The grooves are all the same distance in from the 
edges and are all the same depth. To protect the 
bench while using the plow, get a piece of board and 
on it fasten pieces to hold the work while running the 
groove. This is done by sawing out three or four 
pieces as shown in Fig. 115, and fastening them to the 
board as shown in Fig. 116. 





FiG.»i5. F:g. lie. 

The tongue on the edges of the top and the bottom 
can be made with the plow by fastening the pieces in 
the vise and rabbeting out the corners as shown in C, 
Fig. 114. 

After all cutting and fitting has been done smooth 
the inside of each piece with the plane; then take the 
steel scraper (shown in Fig. 117), and scrape the sur- 
faces: then finish with sand paper; glue the corners; 

put the bottom in place and 
fasten together with hand screws 
and let dry. There are no nails 
used in the construction of this 
Fig (17 exercise. 




94 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 

Finish the outside of the box in the same way that 
the inside was done. 

After finishing the outside and the top, use filler or 
stain to color the wood. The filler is a mixture of 
fine whiting and linseed oil with a little turpentine to 
act as a dryer, colored with any of the pigments de- 
sired. A little experience is necessary in using the 
colors to obtain the desired shade. 

The filler comes already prepared, of a cream color, 
and must be colored as required. Apply the filler 
with a brush, and let it stand on the wood for a short 
time; then rub it off with cotton waste or a rag; then 
set the work aside until the surfaces are perfectly hard; 
then give a coat of shellac varnish and let it dry. Re- 
peat the operation two or three times, using sand 
paper to smooth each coat of varnish. 

After the varnish is thoroughly hard, take powdered 
pumice and oil or water, using a soft rag, and rub the 
surfaces until they are smooth; then take rotten stone 
and oil and rub until it has a fairly bright gloss. Rub 
with a soft dry cloth, then finish with the palm of the 
hand until a bright glossy surface is obtained. 

For polishing see note. 

PROBLEM IN TRUSS WORK. 

The preceding work is what might be termed joiner 
work; the carpenter also is called upon to join timbers, 
and uses to a great extent the same joints that the 
joiner does, but the joiner's work is usually where it 
must bear inspection, whereas the carpenter's work is 
generally covered over either by plaster or casings. A 
single mechanic may be able to perform every kind of 



ELEMENTAEY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



95 



work that is required in the construction of a building; 
thus the two trades are usually spoken of as one, i. e., 
arpenter work. 




i a' 



~7T 



r 
i 






*r 



Fig. n&; 

In Fig. 118 is shown a method that is sometimes 
used in the construction of trusses. A truss is that 
part of a roof which supports the purlines, rafters and 
sheathing. A roof is the covering or upper enclosure 
of a building with the frame work by which it is sup- 
ported. It may be of almost any shape. A light roof 
is usually of moderate span, without trusses, the raft- 
ers being supported by the walls or partitions of the 
building. A heavy roof is employed for wider spans, 



96 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 

and the rafters are then supported by the purlines and 
trusses. A truss is usually required for spans of more 
than 20 feet. 

*The span of a roof is the horizontal distance be- 
tween the external surfaces of the walls of the build- 
ing; its rise is a vertical let fall from its ridge to a 
horizontal line joining the intersections of the external 
surfaces of the walls and the roof surfaces. The in- 
clination of a roof equals the angles between its sur- 
face and a horizontal. 

The span of a truss is the horizontal distance be- 
tween the centers of its end joints, and is usually the 
same as that between the centers of the walls, which 
support the truss. Its rise is the vertical connecting 
its span line and the center of the joint at the apex or 
highest point of the truss. 

A member of a truss is any straight or curved piece 
which connects two adjacent joints of the truss. 

The upper chord is composed of the members which 
form the upper edge or margin of the truss. Each 
half of the upper chord of a triangular truss is often 
called a principal. The lower chord is composed of 
the members forming the lower edge of the truss. If 
straight, this is termed the tie-beam or tie-rod; the first 
being a wooden timber; the second, one or more rods 
of iron. 

The web members connect the joints of one chord 
with those of the other, and may be radials in case of 
curved trusses, diagonals, or verticals. They are com- 
monly called struts where they resist compression, ties 

* Definitions from Ricker's Trussed Roofs. 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 97 

where they resist tension, and strut-ties where they re- 
sist compression and tension. 

A joint is the connection of two or more members 
whose center lines must intersect at a common point 
if possible, this common point being the center of the 
joint. 

The rafters of light roofs are not trussed, but rest 
directly on the walls, and support the sheathing and 
covering of the roof. 

Heavy roofs are supported by trusses resting on the 
side walls. 

The sheathing is supported by rafters which rest on 
the purlines, these being supported by the trusses. 

The drawing, Fig. 118, shows the half of a truss; the 
members are the upper chord, the lower chord, and a 
strut. 

Although carpenter work is usually of a rough char- 
acter, the joints of a truss should fit snugly so that 
there will be no room to give when loaded; so, for the 
practice, the student will plane the stock either to the 
sizes given in the drawing or double the sizes, making 
the whole truss as time and circumstances permit. 
(This to be determined by the instructor.) 

Fig. 119 shows what is termed a truss diagram; the 
distance from point A, to B, is the distance between 
the center of the walls, and the angle A, C, D, is the 
inclination or pitch of the roof. The pitch of the roof 
is determined by the distance the peak of the roof 
rises above the walls; thus if a roof has a quarter pitch, 
the peak would rise above the walls one quarter the 
width of the building; if half pitch the peak would rise 



98 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



one half the width of the building, etc. For simplicity 
in laying out this problem we will make the pitch one 
half. The points A, B, represent the span of the 
walls; also the lines A, C, and B, C, show the outside 




Fig. iia 

margin of the upper-chord of the truss. By bisecting 
A, B, and erecting a perpendicular at D, to C, we divide . 
the triangle A, B, C, into two triangles, A, D, C, and B, 
D, C. Now, the line A, C, is the hypotenuse of the right- 
angled triangle A, D, C. We had one example of find- 
ing the length of the hypotenuse of a right-angled tri- 
angle in Exercise No. 4. The workman who lays out 
rafters or trusses rarely takes time to calculate the 
hypotenuse of the triangle, but uses the steel framing 
square in the following manner. He obtains the hori- 
zontal distance at the bottom of the rafters, and the 
pitch. Take for example a truss that is 30 feet across 
from point to point, and a pitch of one half; then the 
distance the peak would rise would be 15 feet. Take 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



99 



the framing square and lay it on the chord, taking 12 
inches on the blade and 12 inches on the tongue and 
mark off 15 triangles as shown in Fig. 120, which is 
half the width of the building. The rise was also 15 
feet; so by using the square as shown, we obtain the 
rise and the run of the rafter. The line on one side of 



id 
• — 




o 

2 






FlG.120 



T»E^ BEAM, 



the square gives the angle at which the chord or rafter 
is to be cut at the peak. The line at the other end of 
the chord gives the line from which to measure the 
distance the tenon and shoulders go down into the tie- 
beam. The strut shown in the drawing, Fig. 118, has one 
joint square, and the other at an angle of 45 degrees. 



LofC. 



100 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 

Where the pitch is one half, the angles are 45 degrees 
and right angles. 

The line E, D, on the diagram represents a tie-rod, 
which by the construction of this truss would natur- 
ally tend to stiffen the structure by supporting the 
center of the tie-beam. 

Wire, nuts, and washers are supplied (where the stu- 
dent makes a whole model) to make the tie-strut. 

The student in writing out notes will make two 
sketches of trusses he may have observed on shop 
visits. The buildings visited almost all have trussed 
roofs, either wood or iron. • 

PROBLEM IN STAIR BUILDING. 

Two or three students may work together on this 
problem. 

Read all through before commencing work. 

The stair and the hand-rail may be considered as 
one problem, since the hand-rail forms part of the com- 
pleted staircase, but they are separated into two dis- 
tinct problems for convenience in working them out. 

In Fig. 121, is shown the plan and the elevation of 
the stair, the dimensions for each piece required are 
calculated by the student from this drawing. The 
name of each piece also is found in Fig. 121. The 
nosing is to be added to the width of the tread. The 
nosing is the part which projects beyond the front of 
the riser. 

The thickness of the stringers is to be -| inch, the 
risers f inches, the treads | inches, and the well-hole 
is to be built up as in practical work, as shown in Fig. 
122. 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 101 



TREflO 



UUT^IPE STSINtei 



LAN PINO. 




WELL. 





«r 


Pl( 


» 121 


4 














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• 
• 


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5?" 

\ 




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^v 


in 
5 


V 

• 
• 




/ 
s 


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FORM OF BILL OF LUMBER. 



/ 



Wall stringer 

Outside stringer 

Risers (5 pieces) 

Treads plus nosings (4 pieces) 

Top tread (1 piece) 

Well hole piece 



Length W 



dth Thickness 



C i 

i i 
a 
a 

c i 

u 



102 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



F\ G . I 2 2 







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ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 103 

After the material is prepared, proceed to make the 
templets. The templets required are shown in Fig. 
122. 

Templet E, is used to lay out the brackets for the 
risers and treads on the wall and outside stringers; 
templet G, to lay out the housing for the treads on the 
wall stringer; templet H, for the housing for the risers 
on the wall stringer. 

Now take the piece for the wall stringer, A, Fig. 
122, and draw the line X, Y; proceed to lay it out. 

Commencing at the bottom, lay templet E on the 
piece as shown at 1 A, and draw lines for the riser and 
the bottom of the tread; then place the templet as 
shown by 2 A, (remembering that in order to have the 
bottom step the same height as the others the bottom 
riser must be the thickness of the tread narrower than 
the others. This will be seen by looking at the draw- 
ing, Fig. 122, which shows the height of the risers). 
Then place templet E, in position as indicated by 3 A, 
and draw the line for the riser and the tread, and so 
on until all the lines have been drawn which will rep- 
resent the front of the risers and the bottom side of 
the treads. 

After having drawn these lines, take templet G, and 
place it on the tread line as shown at J, Fig. 122, and 
draw the lines for the top of the steps, the nosing, and 
the wedges; the thickness of the step is to be measured 
up from the tread line. 

Now take templet H, place it in position on the riser 
lines, J, Fig. 122, draw lines back of the riser line for 
the thickness of the risers and the wedges; then pro- 



104 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 

ceed to cut out the housing in the following man- 
ner: 

Take a center or auger bit the same size as the thick- 
ness of the step and bore the depth that the housing 
is to be, as shown at 5 A, Fig. 122.; then take a chisel 
and cut out as shown at 4 A, Fig. 122. This will give 
room to use the back saw to cut the rest of the lines. 
Now take a chisel and remove the pieces to the depth 
required, which, in this case, is J inch; cut for the 
risers and remove in the same manner. 

In larger work of this kind a router should be used. 

To lay out the outside stringer take templet E, Fig. 
122, and mark as at B, Fig. 122. The riser is to form 
a miter with the front of the bracket; so it will be 
necessary to begin at the top step and saw the stringer 
off square to the face; then take a bevel (which will be 
set at an angle of 45 degrees) and mark from the riser 
line so that it will form a miter. Saw down this line; 
then saw the next tread line square to the face. Re- 
peat with the bevel as before, and saw the next riser 
line, and so on until the bottom is reached. C, and D, 
Fig. 122, show how the risers and the treads are to be 
cut. The ends of the risers are to be cut at an angle 
of 45 degrees to fit the bracket on the outside stringer. 
The end of the step is cut as shown in order to receive 
the return nosing. The dovetails on the end are to 
receive the baluster which supports the hand-rail. 

The piece F, which is to form the well-hole, is built 
up of pieces, then planed out with a round bottom 
plane. ' The method of fastening this piece to the 
stringer is to halve the stringer and to cut out the well- 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



105 



hole piece to receive it; then glue and screw together. 
I, Fig. 122, shows what the top or landing step is to 
be. 

The curves that are shown at the bottom and the top 
of the stringers are known as easings. The student will 
use his own ingenuity in forming the easing, remem- 
bering that a little glue will fasten pieces together, 
and that it is not necessary to take a board the whole 
width at those points of the stringers to accomplish 
this. 

To put the stairs together after all the pieces have 
been prepared, place the bottom riser in place and 
fasten it in with glue and a wedge; then toe-nail it into 
the stringer from the back. Now fasten the outside 
stringer to the riser, bracing it into position; then fit 
the second riser and the first tread into place; then 
fasten with glue and wedges, and. toe-nail the riser and 
the tread to the stringer. The treads will be nailed to 
the risers so as to unite the work firmly together. 

Another method of fast- 
ening the riser to the tread 
is to groove the front edge 
of the tread and have a 
tongue on the riser, an illus- 
tration of which is shown 
in Fig. 123. 

To decorate stairways 
mouldings are used; gener- 
ally a cove moulding is fast- 
ened under the front and the end of the tread, an 
illustration of which is shown at Fig. 124. The ham- 




100 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



mer is used in this problem; it is hardly necessary to 
explain its use. 




Toe-nailing is the driving of nails obliquely in order 
to fasten two pieces that may be at an angle to each 
other, as illustrated by Fig. 125. 




Fig. 125 

problem in hand railing. 

The student, not having had wood turning as yet, 
will not consider the making of the turned balusters, 
such work being introduced in the course in wood 
turning. 

In commencing work on the hand railing, notice the 
several parts that have to be made; first, the newel 



ELEMENTAEY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



107 




Fig. 126 



post; second, the easing 
at the bottom of the 
stairs; third, the straight 
piece of railing; fourth, 
the return or twist at the 
top. 

Fig. 126 shows the 
working drawing for the 
newel post, the explana- 
tion of which will be un- 
necessary. The easing is 
the bend in 'the rail be- 
fore it strikes the newel 
post . The method of lay- 
ing out a graceful easing 
is shown in Fig. 127. 
The straight piece of rail 
is worked out with the 
hollow and the round 
planes which are to be 
found in the tool room. 

The return or twist re- 
quires to be developed by 



descriptive geometry, and to do this we will refer to 
drawing Fig. 121 in order to find the diameter of the 
well. It will be noticed that one half of the twist is 
parallel with the landing and that the curve for that 
half would be a true quarter circle, while the other half 
of the twist, that part which follows the incline of the 
stairs, would be part of an ellipse. 

To demonstrate this, take a cylinder and cut it at an 



108 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 




Fig. 1 27 

angle to its axis; the section through which the cylin- 
der was cut would be an ellipse, an illustration of 

which is shown by Fig. 128. 
To develop this part of the 
ellipse lay out, on a board, 
by the following method, 
a full sized drawing of the 
rail required. 

On the board draw a 
straight line which will be 
the center line of the well, 
and on any convenient 
Ft G.i 28, point placing the leg of the 
compass (which will be set 
at the required radius), de- 
scribe a semi-circle, which 
will represent the diameter 
of the well given in the plan 
in Fig. 121. Now from the 
semi-circle draw lines par- 
allel to the center line, which will represent the out- 
side stringer of the stair and the casing on the landing. 
Fig. 129 shows the development thus far. 




ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



109 



The rail is to be 1^ inches wide and the balusters to 
be i inch square. The side of the balusters which 
come on the outside of the stairs comes even with the 
stringer, and the rail is to be placed so that the bal- 
usters are on its center. 

From the line which is already drawn to show the 
part which is parallel to the landing, draw a line for 
the center of the rail, and on each side of the center 
line lay out half the Avidth of the rail. On the other 
half, which represents the outside stringer (the incline 

of the twist), draw the center 
line of the rail for the straight 
part; then draw lines for the 
width of the rail as on the other 
half. Now, to obtain that part 
of the ellipse required, take the 
pitch-board E, Fig. 122, and 
place it on the drawing as shown 
in Fig. 130; then draw lines 
from points X, Y, Z, perpendic- 
ular to the center line. Now set 
the compass to the distance A, 
B, and mark the distance A, B, 
on each side of the point Y. 
This gives the width of the piece 
required for the twist on the 
center line. 

Describe the ellipse. The 
major chord would be 2 (E, F,) 
for the outside ellipse, and the minor chord is G, H, 
for the inside. 



Mi 



z 

fl: 
h 
1/5 

tL 


111 

Z 




HI 

z 



in 

H 

5 



z 

5 

z 

j 

u. 


U! 
Z 



Fig. i2o. 



110 



ELEMENTAKY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 




Pi 6,130 



There are several methods used in describing an 
ellipse which the student no doubt has used in study- 
ing geometry, but the practical stair builder uses a 
trammel and block. The block 
is grooved through its center as 
shown in Fig. 131, and the tram- 
mel is a strip of wood; a pencil 
is fastened on one end and pins 
are fixed at points to be found 
by trial near the middle. Fig. 
132 shows how the trammel is 
made. The pins slide in the 
grooves of the block, and the 
pencil marks the curve required 







1 





Fig. 131 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



Ill 




112 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 

Fig. 133 gives a very comprehensive idea of the 
pieces before they are worked down. The pieces at 



JL 



"1 — w 

Pig. 13a 



the right and at the top are the moulds, and the mould 
for the rail is on the top of the piece which is seen in 
the front of the figure. 

After having laid out the lines as directed make the 
moulds or templets out of thin stuff; then mark the 
stock (out of which the pieces of the rail are to be 
made), by the templets, and saw them out, either with 
a compass saw, or with the band saw where it is con- 
venient to do so. 

It will be noticed that the piece out of which the 
curved or twisted piece is made is thicker than the 
piece which is parallel with the landing. 

After the pieces are sawed out, proceed to lay out 
the lines by which the rail is to be worked out. The 
templet E, Fig. 122, is used to obtain the perpendicu- 
lar and the horizontal lines, from which is drawn the 
rectangle that is seen on the end of the rail, (in Fig. 
133,) and the templet seen on the right (in Fig. 133) 
is used to obtain the curved lines on the top. Work 
off the surplus stock on each side of the rectangle 
with the draw knife and the spokeshave, then work 
off the top and the bottom, taking care to make a 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 



113 



graceful curve on the top and the bottom. Then 
mark the shape of the rail on the end and work out. 
In Fig. 134 is seen the finished twist developed from 
the pieces shown at Fig. 133. 




Fig. 131 



NOTES. 

TO DISSOLVE SHELLAC. 

Put gum shellac into a glass or earthen vessel (a wooden box 
coated inside with glue makes a very good vessel in which to 
dissolve shellac), and pour over it alcohol enough to cover the 
shellac; keep stirring it until no lumps remain. This will take 
from two to three hours, according to quantity. If left in a tin 
can the shellac becomes very dark. To clear it when dark add 
a little oxalic acid and stir until cleared. 

TO POLISH WITH SHELLAC. 

Dissolve shellac in 90 per cent alcohol. Stir for two hours, 
though not continually; do not allow it to stand long enough for 
lumps to settle. After the shellac is dissolved the polish is 
ready for use. 

Now take a piece of old soft woolen material, and form it into 
a ball about the size of an egg in a way to permit the lower side 
to remain smooth. On the latter pour about from one-half to 
one thimbleful of the polish. Around the whole put a four- 
cornered piece of old linen about 10x13 inches, and fold it 
around the ball just as you have done with the woolen cloth but 
in such a way that you can hold it by the end of the goods. On 
the smooth side put a few drops of linseed oil, and then begin 
to polish the surface with a light and even pressure in a circular 
movement from one side to the other, forward and backward, until 
the entire surface receives a slight covering of polish. When 
the work becomes more difficult the ball requires moistening by 
a few drops of oil; at the same time put a few drops of oil on the 
plate, and the ball w?ll move easily again. You must observe 
the work constantly. If everything is in order the plate as well 
as the ball will keep clean, but if the ball sticks to the plate and 
gets smeary then you will know that the polish is too thick and 
must be thinned with alcohol, which you are to put on the 
woolen cloth, previously removing the linen and putting it back 
on the other side; that is, turn the linen rag before putting it 

114 



ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 115 

back on the ball. After having polished it sufficiently so (hat 
all the pores of the wood are filled and the surface has a nice 
gloss, put another soft linen rag around the ball, and moisten it 
with a few drops of alcohol; again polish as before until the flat 
surface has a high grade of smoothness and gloss and all the 
greasy appearance has disappeared. You must be very careful, 
however, to apply but a few drops of alcohol and to press these 
into the ball as well as possible; otherwise the strength of it 
may dissolve the polish in some places entirely. When at last 
the ball leaves but weak traces, then polish fast with strong 
strokes forward and backward until the ball is completely dry 
and the surface of the wood very glossy. 

If you polish the finished surface once more after ten days 
the gloss will be nicer, as the surface gets harder with age. 

If you want the polish to be colored use Curcuma for yellow, 
Sandal for red, and Spanish green for green. The color is to be 
put in a thin coat between two linen rags, over which should be 
put a woolen rag. While polishing some of the coloring will 
stick to the polish. 

It is not to be expected that by working according to these 
directions you will learn how to polish perfectly, as there are 
always some unlooked-for difficulties, but generally you can tell 
what to do in any emergency. 

glue. ' 

How to dissolve and how to use. 

Glue, which one workman finds all right and from which he 
obtains excellent results, may, in the hands of another work- 
man, prove a failure from many causes, some of which may be 
that the glue is too thick, or it may have been chilled before the 
pieces were clamped together, or the glue is too thin. The 
workman has to know from experience just how thick the glue 
has to be for the work he has on hand. A hardwood piece of 
work requires a thinner glue than soft wood. The average con- 
sistency of glue should be about like that of thin syrup, and 
should be applied hfit to the work. Sometimes in cold weather 
the glue "sets " quickly; then the pieces to be glued should be 



116 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 

heated so that the glue may be kept soft. When the pieces are 
put together clamp them up quickly or rub them together, forc- 
ing out the surplus glue from the joint. When work is glued 
together it should stand from eight to twelve hours before be- 
ing handled. 

When the end grain of wood has to be glued, it should first 
be sized, that is, it should be given a coat of glue and let dry. 
This fills the pores of the wood so that when the joint is made 
it will hold. 

There are two kinds of glue, animal and fish glue. Animal 
glue is made from the refuse of slaughter houses and tanneries, 
and the number of grades and colors are innumerable. Fish 
glue is made chiefly from the entrails and skin of fish, and is 
mostly in liquid form. 

To prepare glue, put as much as is needed in the glue pot 
and cover over with cold water; then let it soak from six to ten 
hours, according to the quantity ; after this place the glue pot in 
the water kettle or glue heater, and apply heat in any conven- 
ient way to the water, which in turn heats the glue. The use of 
the two vessels is to prevent the glue from burning. 

Glue should always be used as freshly as possible, for then it 
holds better than when it is old. 

It can be made to stand the weather by adding boiled lin- 
seed oil. Add the linseed oil to the glue slowly, stirring it all 
the time, the proportion of oil to glue being two ounces of oil 
to sixteen ounces of glue. Another method of preparing glue 
to stand the weather, is to use skimmed milk instead of water 
when preparing it. 

TO TEUE OILSTONES. 

Oilstones by their continuous use by students become hollow 
at the center and must be trued up so that plane-irons and 
chisels can be sharpened properly on them. There are a num- 
ber of methods that can be employed to accomplish this; any of 
them, if tried, will give good results: 

1st Method. Take a piece of flags ton e.or any kind of stone 
that has a flat surface, and on it place sharp sand and wet it 



ELEMENTARY COUESE IN WOODWORK. 117 

with water. Take the oilstone, and with a circular motion rub 
on the sand until a flat surface is obtained. The sand should 
be kept moist during the operation. 

2nd Method. Take a flat board and on it place a sheet of 
number one and one-half sand paper; moisten slightly and rub 
the oilstone on it until the desired results are obtained. Emery 
cloth is also good. 

3rd Method. "We have obtained the best and quickest re- 
sults from this method, which is to have an iron plate finely 
corrugated and sprinkle No. 30 or No. 40 emery on it; rub the 
oilstone over the plate, sprinkling a little emery from time to 
time as the work advances. Use the emery dry. An oilstone 
in very poor condition can be trued up by this method in from 
three to five minutes. 

A mixture to apply to a hard oilstone to make it " cut " when 
sharpening a plane iron or a chisel, is to take glycerine one part 
and alcohol one part. This mixture will not become gummy, 
and an oilstone that is sometimes considered worthless while 
using common oils, will be found to give good satisfaction. 



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In the Misty 
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Cloth. Eight full page illustrations. 
Many smaller ones. 160 pages, hand- 
some cover, list 50 cents. 



TURNING POINTS IN TEACHING 

Dr. Murphy is a practical teacher; he 
knows the needs of teachers and has 
given them a book full of New Methods, 
Ideas, Anecdotes and Helps. Some of the 
chapters are: The First Day of School; 
Critical Moments in the School Room; 
Managing the Bad Bov; Managing the 
Bad Girl; Blue Monday. Cloth, 144 
pages, 50 cents; paper, 545 cents. 

THE STUDENT'S GUIDE TO MUSIC 

In the Student's Guide to Music we find 
just what its name indicates; all the 
necessary rudiments of music; talks on 
Voice Culture, Breathing and Theory; 
nearly 100 Exercises in Sight Singing 
for classes in. unison; a Complete Dic- 
tionary of musical terms. Manila bind- 
ing, 60 pages, 25 cents. 



NORTON'S PRACTICAL STUDIES IN 

GRAMMAR Theory and Practice are 
unnniinHn conlbine d; principles and 
definitions given from the outset, but 
with little formality; abundance of easy 
examples for illustrations; varied selec- 
tions from standard literature for gram- 
matical and literary study. Large type; 
several full page and haif page illustra- 
tions. Cloth, 215 pages, price 40 cents. 
If the book is adopted the amount paid 
for the first copy will be refunded. 



MISS HAUCK'S NEW REPRODUCTION 
STORIES FOR PRIMARY GRADES 
15 original and rewritten stories. 
They embrace all subjects, as Little 
Stories about Nature, Stories about 
Animals, Children, Flowers, Trees, 
Birds, Leaves, etc. Price 15c. 



A NEW HELP IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 



This is not purposed as a patent 
method for teaching history, but 
is the result of long experience in the school room and in normal institutes. 
The Outlines are full, the Notes interesting, the Questions suggestive. Send 
25 cents for a copy and if not fully up to expectations, return same. 



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THE NEW PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC 

By A. W. Rich, Professor of Mathematics in the Iowa State Nor- 
mal School. 

This book is the result of practical work in the class room, and 
furnishes a complete course for all ordinary purposes. 
Among the Features of Special Note are : 

i. A set of tables and drills for mental work. These cover the 
essential operations of arithmetic and are designed to make 
the pupil proficient in the shortest time possible. 

2. A presentation of the necessary definitions, principles, and 

rules in compact form so as to indicate clearly the arith- 
metical elements and relations. 

3. A great number of model problem solutions. The scope, the 

varied character, and the helpfulness of these emphasize the 
thought side; and are of the highest value in developing the 
reasoning powers. 

4. A large variety of Drill Tables, Test Problems, and other 

means of testing the pupil's power as well as giving him 
mastery over the subject. 

Cloth, 5 x 75^ inches; 222 pages. Price, 50 cents. 



THE NEW HIGHER ARITHMETIC 

The need of a good, practical, and suggestive higher text in 
arithmetic has long been felt. Not a book of catch problems, or a 
book filled with curious or obsolete matter is here presented; but a 
helpful, inspiring, useful text-book. 

A Special Feature May be Mentioned": 

The Model Solution found so valuable in the New Practical' 
Arithmetic, has been carried forward in this work. To this has been 
added a feature known as "indicated work," inventional in its nature, 
by which the pupil is taught to formulate his problems and to express 
them in clear and definite language. 

This work is regarded as of high value in enabling a pupil to 
determine promptly the conditions of a problem, and to sec the end 
from the beginning and then proceed by logical £teps from the 
beginning to the end. 

Cloth, 5x7^ inches. 320 pages. Price, 75 cents. 

A copy of both books for $1.00. If adopted or returned money 
will be refunded. 

Liberal Terms for Introduction and Exchange. 



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